Sensors, Vol. 20, Pages 1077: Object-Based Shadow Index via Illumination Intensity from High Resolution Satellite Images over Urban Areas (Sensors)

For multi-spectral remote sensing imagery, accurate shadow extraction is of great significance for overcoming the information loss caused by high buildings and the solar incidence angle in urban remote sensing. However, diverse solar illumination conditions, similarities between shadows, and other dark land features bring uncertainties and deviations to shadow extraction processes and results. In this paper, we classify shadows as either strong or weak based on the ratio between ambient light intensity and direct light intensity, and use the fractal net evolution approach (FNEA), which is a multi-scale segmentation method based on spectral and shape heterogeneity, to reduce the interference of salt and pepper noise and relieve the error of misdiagnosing land covers with high reflectivity in shaded regions as unshaded ones. Subsequently, an object-based shadow index (OSI) is presented according to the illumination intensities of different reflectance features, as well as using the normalized difference water index (NDWI) and near infrared (NIR) band to highlight shadows and eliminate water body interference. The data from three high-spatial-resolution satellites—WorldView-2 (WV-2), WorldView-3 (WV-3), and GaoFen-2 (GF-2)—were used to test the methods and verify the robustness of the OSI. The results show that the OSI index performed well regarding both strong and weak shadows with the user accuracy and the producer accuracy both above 90%, while the four other existing indexes that were tested were not effective at diverse solar illumination conditions. In addition, all the disturbances from water body were excluded well when using the OSI, except for the GF-2 data in weak shadows.