Remote Sensing, Vol. 13, Pages 4805: Controllably Deep Supervision and Multi-Scale Feature Fusion Network for Cloud and Snow Detection Based on Medium- and High-Resolution Imagery Dataset (Remote Sensing)

Clouds and snow in remote sensing imageries cover underlying surface information, reducing image availability. Moreover, they interact with each other, decreasing the cloud and snow detection accuracy. In this study, we propose a convolutional neural network for cloud and snow detection, named the cloud and snow detection network (CSD-Net). It incorporates the multi-scale feature fusion module (MFF) and the controllably deep supervision and feature fusion structure (CDSFF). MFF can capture and aggregate features at various scales, ensuring that the extracted high-level semantic features of clouds and snow are more distinctive. CDSFF can provide a deeply supervised mechanism with hinge loss and combine information from adjacent layers to gain more representative features. It ensures the gradient flow is more oriented and error-less, while retaining more effective information. Additionally, a high-resolution cloud and snow dataset based on WorldView2 (CSWV) was created and released. This dataset meets the training requirements of deep learning methods for clouds and snow in high-resolution remote sensing images. Based on the datasets with varied resolutions, CSD-Net is compared to eight state-of-the-art deep learning methods. The experiment results indicate that CSD-Net has an excellent detection accuracy and efficiency. Specifically, the mean intersection over the union (MIoU) of CSD-Net is the highest in the corresponding experiment. Furthermore, the number of parameters in our proposed network is just 7.61 million, which is the lowest of the tested methods. It only has 88.06 GFLOPs of floating point operations, which is less than the U-Net, DeepLabV3+, PSPNet, SegNet-Modified, MSCFF, and GeoInfoNet. Meanwhile, CSWV has a higher annotation quality since the same method can obtain a greater accuracy on it.